FORMS OF LIBERATION/DECOLONIZATION
There were four types/methods that Africans applied in their struggle to liberate themselves from the colonial domination, these include;
a) Liberation by constitution/ dialogue/ peacefully: This involved intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the political independence of Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia all applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their independence.
b) Liberation by revo1ution means: This was the type of nationalistic struggle which involved complete overthrow of the existing political system. This existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the expenses of the majority, the case study is in Zanzibar where minority Arabs were granted independence by the British which prompted the majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964, and replaced with another new political system that is supported by the masses. It took place even Egypt and Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves bloodshed.
(c) Liberation by armed struggle: This was conducted in the situation where peaceful means failed and the imperialist were reluctant to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In such situation the Africans picked up arms to fight the imperialists by force as a method to achieve their independence it involved bloodshed using of guerrilla warfare in those settler dominated colonies for example in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique.
Combination of constitution and armed struggle: These liberations combined both methods. Firstly the Africans resorted to armed struggle as a way to achieve their independence and then applied dialogue/peaceful means to solve the problems of their independence, this happened in Kenya and Zimbabwe.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINED FORMS OF DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA
Existence of settler in the colonies that had a number of white settlers like Kenya Zimbabwe whereby they had made some developments in form of investment the colonialist were not willing to surrender their wealth to Africans and were not sure of their future incase Africans take over the government, thus giving independence was very difficult. This made the Africans to apply armed struggle as the means of getting their independence
The nature of the colony. Those colonies that were regarded as overseas provinces of the colonial nation and view them as their mandatory land this was mostly to colonial masters like Portugal and France in such cases the colonialist were not ready to grant independence until the African decide to use the barrel of the gun to give independence; therefore armed struggle was the only solution for example in Kenya, Angola, Mozambique and South Africa.
The economic strength of the colony. In those colonies were development was very high and colonial investment was huge like South Africa and Zimbabwe the colonialists were not able to grant independence to the Africans in a peaceful way, the only solution remained to apply forceful means.
The financial economic position of the colonial power. Many colonies that belonged to Portugal applied armed struggle because Portugal economic position was not good highly depended ion Africa colonies for domestic development so she was un willing to give independence.
The status of the colony, those colonies that were under the trust ship of UN managed to achieve their Independence easily through peaceful means because of the pressure from UN and USA, like Tanganyika got her independence early enough than other east African sister nations of Kenya and Uganda, but those who were mandatory colonies could not get their independence so easily thus armed struggle.
The minority rule like U.D.I in Zimbabwe and the white racist regime in SA where by the minority white settlers declared the unilateral independence, in case of Zanzibar where minority Arabs were given independence by the British to the expense of the majority Africans on the islands this also caused armed struggle through a revolution
Existence of peasant cash crops; colonies that had developed peasant cash crops like, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, and Tanganyika, achieved their independence through peaceful means, the colonialist could not delay this independence after realizing that they can continue exploiting their resources through neo colonialism and they had nothing to lose in granting independence
The nature of reaction the African had towards the colonialist, also determined the form of liberation, those African societies who were very collaborative to the colonialist and forged class alliance with the colonialist in most cases dialogue or peaceful means were applied to decolonize e.g. in Uganda the Ganda were used as sub imperialist to Other areas of Uganda to spread the colonial rule so independence was through peaceful means in Uganda as to pave way for the Ganda to dominant other tribes.
Existence of wealthy especially minerals like gold diamond sliver, industries, well developed social over heads like in south Africa, Kenya, independence could not be given easily why because the colonialist were not ready to leave such wealthy un exploited armed struggle became the only solution’ in case of such situations and on the other side in colonies where development was minimal no infrastructure independence was easily given through peaceful means e.g. in Tanganyika
NATIONALISM IN ZANZIBAR
Background. The social structure in the post — slavery Zanzibar society was highly racial based. After the formal abolition of slavery in 1897 the Zanzibar society had just gone into feudal socio economic stratification which based on racial segregation. The British were on top of the hierarchy the Arabs followed the lowest class wares the Africans these were mostly poor and squatters on Arab cloves plantation.
In the next hierarchy after the Europeans were the Arabs, these were sub-sections within the Arab community which included the relatively less, rich shih iris from Yemen and Mangos from Oman ,they ran small business such as shops and other retail trade ventures mostly in rural areas. The Arabs family shared both political, economical and administration powers with the British colonialists.
Other Oman clans of high class such as the Mazrui and Miskury they held some decision making position in the local authority administrative network and supervisory roles they dominated the middle ranking administrative load of the civil service. They owned big plantation, real estates and the large business. Arabs of Oman origin were favored by British colonialists and were deliberate given senior administrative posts in to prepare them to run the government after independence; they wanted Zanzibar to develop as an Arab and not as an African state.
The third structure was that of the Indian community which enjoyed the considerable social status and influence. They were big merchants who monopolized the exports and imports of trade. They helped senior economic advisory position in the government and dominated the whole financial sector.
The lowest that of oppressed African majority .These were mostly poor landless peasant who were mostly squatters in Arab owned plantations where they provided cheap labor for their survival .Others were employed as domestic servant in rich Arabs and Indian houses .They were denied access to education that were not given the best employment opportunity they could secure in the civil service.
In the colonial Zanzibar the Africans were next to none in personality they were regarded as inferiors. As some afro- centric historian once lamented in his writings that;
“It is true that Africans were intellectually, morally and personality inferior to the European, Zanzibar Africans just like pendulum clocks who needs constant reminding and reprimands, they have been like children who have been taught Arab manners.
The education system was given racial lines to serve the goals of preparing for public administration,
Indian for commercial and financial control Africans for sub service.
More degrading statements were made by the colonialists revealing the mentality concerning Zanzibar
Africans that they were inferior in all aspects to the Europeans and to the Arabs. Example;
Population structure of Zanzibar before independence
AFRICA RACE. Africans made 76% of the Zanzibar population in 1948 none of them owned a plantation of 3000 hectares and more over in education they accounted only 39% of the lower primary education and 3% of secondary education. Africans in Zanzibar by 1964 were immigrants who went there in three phases: during slave trade 1 840-1 870s during colonialism 1891-1963 and during clove harvesting.
THE SHIRAZI RACE. These were of the mixed blood [Shiraz, Africans and Arabs] .The Shiraz Arabs settled in Zanzibar since the 1st century .They came from Persia, Iran and Iraq. The indigenous of Pemba and Unguja before 12th century were black .The Shiraz intermarriage with the black Africans and have mixed blood race .By 1964 the Shiraz identify themselves as; Tumbatu Shiraz and Pemba Shiraz .These were more Arabs in features than Africans and the Hideous —Shiraz who ware more Africans in features than Arabs .They mixed easily with the African race by 1964.
THE ARABS RACE. These were few Arabs who immigrated to Zanzibar since 1940.They were the ones who introduced clove plantations and slave trade in the islands of Zanzibar
THE INDIAN RACE. These few in number and were chiefly merchants who lived in Zanzibar they were allowed to conduct business the by British colonialists to trade in Zanzibar.
THE 1963 INDEPENDENCE CONFERENCE
The conference involved the government and the opposition parties held at Lancaster House in
London from 20-24 September 1 963.It was agreed that Zanzibar should become full independent 1 0th
December 1963.
On 1 0th December 1963 the British government declared the independence of Zanzibar and handed sovereignty to the sultan hence ensuring Arab domination to the land. This is how the efforts towards the independence of Africans came to unsatisfactory. Alternative measures had to be taken by the victimized African majority hence the Revolution of 1964.
THE ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION.
Zanzibar revolution was a complete overthrow of the Arab government by the Africans who were subjected to it. It was a fundamental alteration of principle and practices of Arab Sultan government by the African people. The revolution was organized by the ASP under sheikh Amana Abeid Karume with the support from Umma party under Mohammed Babu in 12 January, 1964.
The group of armed people who physically took part in revolution was led by John Okelo- a Lango young man from Uganda. This was a secretary of A.S.P young wing in Pemba. The group attached the new government and Sultan by surprise. It succeed to capture the police amour in Ziwan then radio station, custrus, airports, post office, hospital and the prison at Mazizini by using knoves, axes, hammers, bows and arrows. The armed men got guns after capturing the police station.
The sultan escaped to Mombasa and many officials were . Mohamed Shamte went into exile in Arabian. The revolution was successful in Sunday morning 12 January, 1964, the revolutionary government was set up with Karume as the president and Hanya the vice president, babu and other ASP members were ministers of the new government.
THE ELECTION BEFORE INDEPENDENCE
Before independence 1963 there were three elections
Period A.S.P Z.N.P Z.P.P.P
Jan1961 40% 35% 17%
June 1961 49% 35% 13%
July 1963 54% 20% 16%
But the British wanted to hand over independence to the majority privileged race [Arabs] on 12/12/1963 Z.P.N became a ruling party and Sultan was made head of state. The A.S.P members the majority regarded that independence as an Arab independence. The A.S.P had tried to bring democratic majority by the use of ballot box without success, the only alternative was the revolution.
Within a month after the Arab independence of 12/12/1963 new Arabs government introduced oppressive measures which included the following; All African schools were closed down and therefore all African teachers were ordered to leave Zanzibar. A.S.P was banned and leaders escaped to Dar –es- Salaam before being arrested, African trade unions were banned. All policemen from the mainland were dismissed and expelled from Zanzibar The new government recruited new policemen within a month.
Due to the above factors A.S.P leaders organized the revolution in Dar- es- Salaam with the assistance of Okello a Ugandan from northern Uganda who had migrated in Zanzibar during colonial; era, as a colonial worker. He captured the armory at Zanzibar city with the assistance of other workers of African origin in Zanzibar and main land Tanganyika using ordinary weapon and managed to over throw the Arab minority regime.
WHY ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION WAS NECESSARY
Sample question
1. Analyze the causes of Zanzibar Revolution (Necta 2008, Q no. 09)
2. Account for inevitability of Zanzibar revolution in 1964.
The revolution of Zanzibar in 1964 was due to the number of reasons these were as follow:-
Zanzibar received its independence from the British colonialism on December 10, 1963. Africans under the ASP recognized that the independence granted in 1963 was for Arabs, thus Africans had still to struggle to receive their independence. This is what forced the revolution in Zanzibar on 12th January 1964. The revolution was due to the following factors.
The elections of 1961-1963. In all these elections there were three parties that contested ASP, ZNP and ZPPP as a result ASP who become victorious in all elections was not allowed to form the government as such British government gave minority independence to Arabs. Africans under ASP become dissatisfied thus they waged revolution to get majority independence.
THE ELECTION BEFORE INDEPENDENCE
Before independence 1963 there were three elections
Period A.S.P Z.N.P Z.P.P.P
Jan1961 40% 35% 17%
June 1961 49% 35% 13%
July 1963 54% 20% 16%
Due to monopolization of trade by foreigners: This is because; Asians monopolized the commercial life in Zanzibar. They directed commerce and finance. Asians became leaders in the economy while Africans were coming to the back. This made Africans to fight against Arabs.
Due to the economic difficulties: This is to say there was world-wide drop in the price of cloves. This culminated in the government reducing expenditures in social services due to lack of financial support. Some schools were closed, teachers became un-employed, medical facilities were cut down, and food staff was minimized. Therefore, this new group of un-employed easily joined with the suffering peasants to start a revolution.
Due to dictatorship of Sultan government. This was because he suppressed human rights in which Africans were not allowed to own properties he burned political parties example in is January 1964the government under Shamte issued an order to burn UMMA party and confiscate its property, thing this forced UMMA party to join with ASP to overthrow him.
Africans were not represented in the LEGICO. i.e. Legislature or law making body in which the LEGICO had three Arabs, Two Assign, two Indian, One European and Zero African. This made Africans to b annoyed. Discrimination of the Arabs over the Africans. This was because Arabs were favored races in the government jobs followed by Indians and Europeans Africans were not favored and become the Subject to Arabs example Arabs owned land and Indians owned finances, Europeans owned trade, Africans owned nothing.
Due to role played by field Marshal John Okelo. This man was from northern Uganda, a Lango by tribe, who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked periodically as a printer. In 1961 he developed a belief of engaging himself in the revolution. From January 11-12, 1964 attained this aim. The main weapons were secrecy and a surprise attack while the government was busy with the Rhamadhani festival in Zanzibar city.
Due to exploitation of the huge population of the Africans: There was on- going bitterness exploitation. Africans therefore, never supported the government and regarded it as an urban internal government which had no concern with the suffering masses.
Due to the effects of British colonial legacy. This is because; the British left the Arabs to administer key sectors because they were their friends and puppets. African had little benefit after the British had granted independence; Africans were given less favor in employment, civil services and in the police.
Economic Marginalization of the African majority, Africans were mainly squatters who made, a living by selling their labor to the landlords and subjected to extreme exploitation Africans had no access to the major means of production Economic inequality, on the Arabs owned land, the Indians controlled finance, the Europeans controlled trade, the Africans owned nothing such a situation made the revolution necessary to occurred.
Zanzibar an African or Arab state? The revolution was also caused by the desire of Arab rulers and British colonialists to make Zanzibar an Arab state in 1962 which the majorities African were not ready to be Arab rise on their own African soil thus the revolution.
Due to the land allocation problem: This because, Arabs owned a larger portion of fertile land and in turn employed Africans as laborers in the coconut and clove plantations. The native Africans became helpless peasants, fishermen, and squatters in Arab farms. This also facilitated the revolution.
Deprivation of black African from Education. Despite the government’s role to provide suitable elementary education for all people, the Africans continued to suffer from inequality of education system. They were not catered like the other races which made them unsatisfied with the regime thus the revolution.
Segregation in the other social services. Africans were also segregated in health services, housing and water supply. Even in civil services African hold lower ranks unlike the Arabs and the Indians
Deception Africans were divided along the lines of religion .Z.P.P campaign slogan used to call Africans to join Z.N.P because they claimed that the party was recognized by God. Cultural and religion it was the Arab culture and religion that became dominated and recognized from that of the African culture and religious beliefs.
Act of intimidation After unexpectedly loosing the 1957 election to Z.N.P it decided to employ various act of intimidation to force Africans to join them i.e. the 1958 strikes at the docks led to mass uprising It initiated a strong campaign against them
Segregation in the social Association As the wind of struggle for political independence which was in full in the continental African swept the island Zanzibar in the mid 1950.The social association underwent complex transformation into political parties .Africans were opposed politically by the ruling class.
The emergence of John Okello from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked periodically as painter he was an official of ASP of Pemba island he joined a revolutionary army in 1961 he played a big role in over throwing the Arab regime by mobilizing people to have a joint efforts of fighting for their rights.
Poor working condition and low wages of Africans after 1963 that could not make them to meet their basic needs of life and despite that were heavily taxed by the Arab government.